In an increasingly mobile society, where access to banking and business applications over a personal smart phone, tablet, or laptop is commonplace, personal identification and authentication have emerged as a global imperative. Although financial transactions and access to financial resources represent one well understood and appreciated vulnerability that can be exploited by criminals and criminal organizations, many other types of computational resources are associated with dangerous vulnerabilities, including access to classified information, control systems, and data-communications systems. Traditionally, an individual establishes his or her identity to humans or automated systems using passports, identity cards passwords and/or personal identification numbers (“PINS”), and providing access to biometrics scans. Unfortunately, serious deficiencies are associated with current identity-establishing documents, information, and technologies. Documents and other physical identity establishing entities can be lost, duplicated, or stolen. Pins and passwords can be easily forgotten, observed, intentionally or unintentionally shared with others, and discovered by determined hackers. These deficiencies have caused major issues for individuals, corporations, and many other organizations. Individuals are generally concerned with identity theft and privacy. Corporations and other organizations may have similar concerns, but are also concerned with theft of data, intellectual property, and trade secrets due to the proliferation of bring-your-own-device (“BYOD”) policies and concomitant vulnerabilities in network security. Both individuals and organizations recognize the dangerous vulnerabilities to shared infrastructure and other resources attendant with widespread Internet connections, ever-increasing automation and computer control, and rapidly increasing capabilities and sophistication of criminals, criminal organizations, hackers, and terrorists. For all of these reasons, individuals and organizations continue to seek reliable technologies for controlling access to computers and computational resources so that only authenticated and authorized individuals are provided access.